The purpose of this study was to establish if injuries sustained during a player’s career in baseball had consequences later in life following retirement from participation. Seventy-five retired Australian baseball players (mean age 55.8 ±11.4 years) completed a survey to establish the long-term consequences of major (i.e. those resulting in five or more consecutive weeks of training or playing being missed) and serious (i.e. those resulting in more than one week, but less than five weeks of training or playing being missed) injuries sustained during their playing careers. Players typically retire from participation in competitive baseball because of either age (33%), a combination of age and injury (25.3%) or injury (14.7%). The average overall injury rate during a playing career was 5.6 ±7.1. Respondents reported a total of 98 (26.4% of all injuries) “major” injuries (1.5 ±2.2 per respondent/playing career) and 273 (73.6%) “significant” injuries (4.1 ±6.5 per respondent/playing career). The highest number of injuries related to the upper body (n = 145) representing 59.9% of all injuries reported and 40.1% (n = 97) of injuries occurred to the lower body. Some respondents (29.3%) incurred additional medical costs and significant loss of income (12%) associated with their injuries. 5.3% of all respondents indicated their injuries had impacted on their ability to perform work for which they had been previously trained. A further 26.7% reported experiencing limitations in their ability to carry out normal leisure activities later in life. Further research is needed into the mechanisms and management of common injuries and their consequences after retirement with a view to developing strategies that may reduce their incidence/severity and possible negative impact later in life.

Supported by notions that supplementation enhances mental, physical and sexual powers steroid users focus on its ability to influence emotional state, and more profoundly shape identity. The notion of anabolic steroid hormone induced changes in biological drive, causing increased anger and hostility is anecdotal but inconclusive.

PURPOSE:

To quantify the existence of either Personality or Mood effects that may be observed during and following six weeks of the administration of controlled doses of testosterone enanthate.

METHODS: Eighteen males (25±4.0 yrs) were match paired and randomly assigned in a double blind manner to either a testosterone enanthate or placebo group. During a monitored training program subjects were injected once weekly for six weeks: the testosterone enanthate group with 3.5mg.kg-1 and the placebo group with saline. Mood was measured daily using the Brunel Mood Scale. Personality testing was conducted pre and post using the 16PF, with data being combined into primary and global factors. Repeated measures ANOVA analysis was conducted (SPSS 11.0).

RESULTS:

An initial investigation of mood plots showed no differences between the groups for anger, depression, tension or confusion. For the testosterone group there were slight increases in Vigour from week 2 and slight reductions in Fatigue apparent immediately. For the Personality factor of Sensitivity, there was a significant time by group effect (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.569, F = 10.59, df = 1,14, p = 0.006). Changes over time for the placebo group were non significant (p = 0.512) with a significant decrease over time for the testosterone group (p = 0.001). For the factor of Dominance (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.751, F = 4.64, df = 1,14, p = 0.049), neither increases over time in the placebo nor decreases over time for the testosterone groups were significant (p = 0.058 and p = 0.378 respectively). For Vigilance Wilks’ Lambda = 0.749, F = 4.69, df = 1,14, p = 0.048, with near significance between the groups at pre with the testosterone group having higher scores (p = 0.055). There was a significant increase in Vigilance over time in the placebo group (p = 0.033), but the decrease in the testosterone group was non significant (p = 0.561).

CONCLUSION:

Significant changes in Sensitivity suggest that this dosage of testosterone enanthate may influence the ability to be empathetic thus reducing sensitivity to other people’s considerations which may be an explanation for apparent aggressive behaviour observed in anabolic steroid users.

Tribalism is an axiomatic characteristic of sport consumerism yet there does not appear to have been any attempt in contemporary sport marketing research to measure this phenomenon.

This thesis develops measures of tribalism, team brand loyalty, team brand value and personal/group identity in English and Australian professional rugby league and rugby union fans. These measures (constructs) have not been developed previously in regard to these sports.

Combinations of qualitative and quantitative research techniques were used in this thesis research (i.e. a multi-method approach). The primary research method involved the development and delivery of a comprehensive online survey that was distributed via selected club (N = 7) web sites to a total of 2,214 self-proclaimed fans of either an English or Australian professional rugby league or rugby union team. A total of 1,649 (74.5%) respondents completed the survey exclusion question. These survey responses were then used to develop and test measures of identified constructs using a Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) programme.

Using the two-step approach to SEM, measurement models and their associated observed indicator variables were initially developed for each construct with acceptable model fit indices (
2, CFI, GFI and RMSEA) for each model. Determination of validity and reliability for each of the scales used to measure the constructs was established prior to examining a final structural model. Acceptable model fits for each construct indicated that the sets of items (indicators) were unidimenisonal. These construct measures were then used as inputs for a structural model based analysis – step-two of the SEM process, which involved the development and assessment of the structural model that specified the interrelationships between the constructs.

An acceptable structural model was found and the relationships between the various constructs were identified. A series of concurrent tests on pairs of fan responses (multiple group analysis) from English and Australian rugby league and rugby union fans was then used to test if the indicator loadings (indicator items loading on to a construct) were essentially the same for both sets of data. This similarity was found to exist for tribalism, team brand loyalty and social-identity, which were all invariant (p > 0.05 i.e. no difference between groups) for English rugby league compared with English rugby union, Australian rugby league compared with Australian rugby union and combined rugby union compared with combined rugby league fan groups. However, the self-identity construct was found to be only partially invariant for English rugby league compared with English rugby union fans and not invariant (p < 0.05 i.e. different between groups) for Australian rugby league compared with Australian rugby union and combined rugby union compared with combined rugby league groups of fans. The brand value measurement model (construct) was found to be not invariant for all groups of fans.

Because the brand value construct was not invariant a reduced model was developed for English rugby league and rugby union fans that did not include the brand value construct and its adequacy of fit was established. A further reduction was made by deleting the construct of self-identity, which measure was not invariant across rugby league and rugby union fans. This model was then used to test for differences between Australian rugby league and rugby union fans and combined rugby union and rugby league fans with the model determined to be adequate. The results of the tests of these models were then used to assess differences between these different groups of fans in regard to tribalism and its relationship with the remaining constructs.

This thesis research developed a range of construct measures and has tested their adequacy of fit for the sports of professional rugby league and rugby union. The relationship between these measures and their relevance to the marketing of these sports and to sport marketing more broadly is also discussed in the thesis.

Use of testosterone enanthate has been shown to significantly increase strength within 6–12 weeks of administration (2, 9), however, it is unclear if the ergogenic benefits are evident in less than 6 weeks. Testosterone enanthate is classified as a prohibited substance by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and its use may be detected by way of the urinary testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) ratio (16). The two objectives of this study were to establish (a) if injection of 3.5 mg·kg−1 testosterone enanthate once per week could increase muscular strength and cycle sprint performance in 3–6 weeks; and (b) if the WADA-imposed urinary T/E ratio of 4:1 could identify all subjects being administered 3.5 mg·kg−1 testosterone enanthate. Sixteen healthy young men were match-paired and were assigned randomly in a double-blind manner to either a testosterone enanthate or a placebo group. All subjects performed a structured heavy resistance training program while receiving either testosterone enanthate (3.5 mg·kg−1) or saline injections once weekly for 6 weeks. One repetition maximum (1RM) strength measures and 10-second cycle sprint performance were monitored at the pre (week 0), mid (week 3), and post (week 6) time points. Body mass and the urinary T/E ratio were measured at the pre (week 0) and post (week 6) time points. When compared with baseline (pre), 1RM bench press strength and total work during the cycle sprint increased significantly at week 3 (p < 0.01) and week 6 (p < 0.01) in the testosterone enanthate group, but not in the placebo group. Body mass at week 6 was significantly greater than at baseline in the testosterone enanthate group (p < 0.01), but not in the placebo group. Despite the clear ergogenic effects of testosterone enanthate in as little as 3 weeks, 4 of the 9 subjects in the testosterone enanthate group (44%) did not test positive to testosterone under current WADA urinary T/E ratio criteria.

There is limited information on the acute immune response to resistance-training programs in combination with short-term administration of the anabolic androgenic steroid, testosterone enanthate (TE), in healthy young males. Eighteen healthy young men were match-paired and randomly assigned in a double-blind manner to either a TE or a placebo (PG) group. All subjects performed a structured resistance-training program while receiving injection of either TE at the dosage of 3.5 mg per kilogram body mass, or saline as placebo, once weekly for 6 weeks. A 10-second all-out cycle sprint test was conducted at the beginning (Week 0) and end (Week 6) of the treatment period. NK, B and T lymphocyte populations were counted and natural killer cytotoxic activity (NKCA) was measured prior to and 5 minutes post the cycle sprint at Weeks 0 and 6. The TE group significantly increased their total work in the 10-second cycle sprint test from Week 0 to Week 6 (p< 0.04), while there was no significant increase for total work in the PG group. There was a significant increase in NKCA from Week 0 to Week 6 (p < 0.05) in the PG group. A significantly higher NKCA in the PG group than in the TE group was found in the post exercise sample in Week 6 (p < 0.04). No significant differences were found between groups for the lymphocyte subsets. The 6-week strength training increased acute NKCA response to anaerobic type of exercise as shown in the PG group. Although dosing of TE enhanced anaerobic performance, the NKCA response in the TE group was lower than that in the PG group. The impact of this altered immune response on athletes’ health requires further investigation.

The thermoregulatory responses of subjects wearing two different forms of rugby league jersey, one with plastic sponsorship recognition and numbering (trial Gl) and one without (trial G2), and a lightweight alternative (trial G3), were compared with a trial without any form of upper body garment (trial GO). Ten male volunteers, mean age 20.9 (±2.3) years, height 179.8 (±4.7) cm, weight 80.2 (±8.9) kg, and body surface area 1.99 (±0.13) m2, participated in this study. Subjects had a mean maximal oxygen uptake capacity of 56.0 (±6.3) ml.kg.min-1 and a sum of 8 skinfolds of 80.6 (±23.8) mm. Subjects were exercised at approximately 50% of maximal oxygen uptake in a warm humid environment for 50 minutes. Mean ambient temperature was 27.6°C (±0.32) with a relative humidity of 64.7% (±1.44). Measurements of core and skin (7 sites) temperature, heart rate, oxygen uptake, plasma volume, peak lactate concentration, and pre- and post-trial body weight, hematocrit and garment weight were recorded. The statistical results showed that all subjects experienced significant (p ≤.0001) decreases in body weight representing a percentage decrease ranging from 1.2-1.3%. No significant difference was found between trials with respect to body weight change. No significant effect of garment type was found on pre- and post-trial hematocrit, plasma volume changes or peak blood lactic acid concentration. However, mean peak lactate was highest for trial Gl (5.6 mmol.L-1 ±2.2) and lowest for trial G3 (4.6 mmol.L-1 ±1.27). Post-trial core temperature was significantly (p≤ .0001) higher than the resting value; no significant difference was found between trials. The mean absolute increase for all experimental trials was 0.9°C. A significant (p≤.005) difference between mean total (7 sites) skin temperature was found with a post-hoc test revealing that trials Gl and G2 were significantly higher than trial GO; no significant difference was found when comparing trial G3 with trial GO or when comparing the garments between each other. Mean skin temperature under the garment (4 sites) was found to be significantly (p≤.05) higher for all trials involving a garment when compared with mean skin temperature outside (3 sites) the garment; no significant difference was found between trials. Mean oxygen uptake was significantly different between trials (p≤.005), with trial Gl and G3 found to be significantly lower than trial GO; no difference was found when comparing the garments with each other. Post-trial garment weights were significantly (p≤.001) heavier than pre-trial and were significantly (p≤.0001) different when compared with each other. There was no significant effect on heart rate, haematocrit, plasma volume changes, peak blood lactic acid concentration, or core temperature due to garment type. However, differences in skin temperature suggest that the garment used in trial G3 may have a benefit. Further research should consider the impact of increased exercise intensity and/or environmental temperature and humidity on the measured parameters while wearing the garments described in this study.

Although product augmentation is nothing new in the traditional consumer services sector, it is still to be applied widely across the professional sport industry globally.

Seventy-five retired baseball players participated in a survey (37.8% response rate) in order to establish the long-term consequences of injuries sustained during their playing careers. Respondents had a mean age of 55.8 (±11.4) years with a mean age of 41.3 (±11.4) years at retirement from play. The mean overall rate of injury suffered per player/playing career was 5.6 (±7.1). 54.7% of respondents experienced a major injury (i.e. injury resulting in 5 or more consecutive weeks absence from training and play) with a mean major injury per player/playing career of 1.5 (±2.2). The rate for significant injuries (i.e. injury resulting in more than 1 week but less than 5 weeks absence from training and play) was 4.1 (±6.5) per player/playing career. Catchers had significantly less injuries than all other positions (p = 0.027). 18.7% of all respondents reported suffering from arthritis, 24% from restricted joint mobility and 4% from chronically stiff fingers; all of these conditions were associated with their participation in baseball based on medical examination by their GP or medical specialist. 29.3% of respondents indicated that they had incurred additional medical costs and 12% reported significant loss of income associated with their injuries. Some injuries were severe enough that they resulted in extended stays in hospital producing costs carried by the health care system.

Pre- and post-game body mass changes were recorded throughout an international rugby union tournament to determine changes in body mass when training and competing on consecutive days. A squad of 28 players with a mean (±SD) age of 20.0 yrs (±0.6), height of 1.85 m (±0.1) and body mass of 94.71 kg (±10.71) were selected to play for England and to participate in an international championship in Sydney, Australia. From the squad, 22 players played in 1 or more of 4 games over a 10-day period from the day of the first match to the day of the last match. Data were collected for a total of 84 player appearances across the 4 games. Players had their body masses recorded prior to leaving England, upon arrival in Australia, and pre- and post-game during the tournament. Players were allowed to ingest fluid ad libitum throughout each match. The mean (±SD) ambient temperature and relative humidity across all games was 18.5°C (±1.63) and 39.5% (±17.7), respectively. Pre- and post-game comparisons of body masses for all player appearances were significantly different (p < 0.00), representing a mean loss of 0.94 kg (±0.94). However, there was no significant difference between games or player position (forwards vs. backs). The results demonstrate that if appropriate hydration practices are implemented, they may reduce the compound effect of fluid loss when playing multiple games in a short period of time. Strategies include daily monitoring of body mass and fluid intake and educating players about the importance of fluid intake to recovery and subsequent performance when playing and training on consecutive days.

Body mass changes, hematocrit, specific gravity and urine colour were recorded during two games of soccer to determine which of these methods was the most practical in a field setting for monitoring dehydration. Members (n=13) of a premiership soccer team with a mean age of 22.6 (+/-4.9) years old, height of 177.8 (+/-7.1)cm and sum of skinfolds (four sites) of 37 (+/-12.8) were invited to participate in this study with 11 participating in each game. Players had weight, hematocrit, specific gravity and urine colour recorded pre- and post-game. Players were allowed to ingest fluid ad libitum throughout the matches with the amount consumed recorded. Urine excretion was also recorded and included in the calculation of final body mass loss (kg). A mean ambient temperature of 21 degrees C and relative humidity 77% was recorded for both games. Pre- and post-game body mass, sweat loss, hematocrit, urine specific gravity and colour were significantly different (p<0.01) for both games. Linear mixed effects models were fitted to the data in order to identify an optimal prediction equation for sweat loss. The model predicting from mass change was clearly the best fitting. The results demonstrate that a change in body mass during a game of soccer is an effective method of monitoring dehydration due to sweat loss when compared to other known methods that may be invasive and inappropriate in the field.

Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) are prohibited substances in sport due to their ability to improve muscle strength and power. Usually athletes who abuse these substances dose in cycles of up to 8-12 weeks. Whether the effects require this length of time to manifest is unknown. Also unknown is the minimum dose required and whether sports drug testing laboratories are able to detect all cases of AAS use by athletes.

PURPOSE: To determine if the AAS, testosterone enanthate could increase strength and athletic performance in 3-6 weeks and the use the T/E ratio screening measure could detect the use of the steroid over that period.

METHODS: Eighteen healthy young males (25+4.0 yrs) were match-paired and randomly assigned in a double blind manner to either a testosterone enanthate or a placebo group. All subjects performed a structured heavy resistance-training program while receiving either testosterone enanthate (3.5 mg.kg-1) or saline intramuscular injections once weekly for six weeks. 1RM strength measures (bench press and leg press) and 10-second cycle sprint performance were monitored at the pre- (week 0), mid (week 3) and post (week 6) time points. Body mass and the urinary testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) ratio were measured at the pre (week 0) and post (week 6) time points. Urine samples collected at week 0 were analysed for the presence of WADA prohibited substances. ANOVA with repeated measures was used for statistical analysis.

RESULTS: When compared to baseline (pre), 1RM bench press strength and total work during the cycle sprint increased significantly at week 3 (p <0.01) and week 6 (p <0.01) in the testosterone group but not the placebo group. At week 3, 1RM bench press increased 9% from baseline whilst at week 6 the increase was 15%. No significant differences were found between groups for 1RM leg press or peak power. Body mass at week 6 was significantly greater (7%) than at week 0 in the testosterone group (p <0.01) but not the placebo group. Despite the clear performance enhancing effects of testosterone in as little as three weeks, four of the nine subjects in the testosterone group (44%) had a T/E ratio of < 4. T/E ratios for the testosterone group ranged from 2 to 37. T/E ratios for the placebo group remained unchanged between week 0 and week 6.

CONCLUSIONS: The AAS, testosterone enanthate, enhances 1RM bench press and 10-second cycle sprint performance in 3 weeks in a dose that is used therapeutic ally. Using the T/E ratio of 4:1 (currently used to screen urine samples), not all subjects could be detected who were being administered the steroid and gaining performance enhancement from it.