David H. Headrick Copyright (c) 2011 All rights reserved. http://works.bepress.com/dheadric Recent documents in David H. Headrick en-us Fri, 23 Dec 2011 01:45:36 PST 3600 Temperature Thresholds and Degree-Day Model for <em>Marmara gulosa</em> (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/23 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/23 Wed, 21 Dec 2011 14:37:25 PST The developmental thresholds for Marmara gulosa Guillen & Davis (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) were investigated in the laboratory by using 17, 21, 25, 29, and 33°C. The lowest mortality occurred in cohorts exposed to 25 and 29°C. Other temperatures caused >10% mortality primarily in egg and Þrst and second instar sap-feeding larvae. Linear regression analysis approximated the lower developmental threshold at 12.2°C. High mortality and slow developmental rate at 33°C indicate the upper developmental threshold is near this temperature. The degree-day (DD) model indicated that a generation requires an accumulation of 322 DD for development from egg to adult emergence. Average daily temperatures in the San Joaquin Valley could produce up to seven generations of M. gulosa per year. Field studies documented two, Þve, and three overlapping generations of M. gulosa in walnuts (Juglans regia L.; Juglandaceae), pummelos (Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.; Rutaceae), and oranges (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck; Rutaceae), for a total of seven observed peelminer generations. Degree-day units between generations averaged 375 DD for larvae infesting walnut twigs; however, availability of green wood probably affected timing of infestations. Degree-day units between larval generations averaged 322 for pummelos and 309 for oranges, conÞrming the laboratory estimation. First infestation of citrus occurred in June in pummelo fruit and August in orange fruit when fruit neared 60 mm in diameter. Fruit size and degree-day units could be used as management tools to more precisely time insecticide treatments to target the egg stage and prevent rind damage to citrus. Degree-day units also could be used to more precisely time natural enemy releases to target larval instars that are preferred for oviposition.

]]> M. J. O'Neal et al. Articles A Review of the Nearctic Species of the Thrips-Attacking Genus Ceranisus Walker (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/22 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/22 Thu, 08 Apr 2010 08:59:07 PDT The thrips-attacking Eulophidae (subfamily Entedoninae) known from the Nearctic region are reviewed. One new species, Ceranisus loomansi, is described. Four other species of Ceranisus are redescribed and illustrated based mainly on a study of their type specimens as well as on additional material from Arizona, California, Hawaii, Mississippi and Japan. Lectotypes are designated for Ceranisus americensis (Girault), C. nubilipennis (Williams) and C. russelli (Crawford). A key to eight species belonging to four entedonine thrips-attacking genera is given, and host associations are indicated for those species.

]]> S. V. Triapitsyn et al. Articles Biology and parasitism rates of Pteromalus nr. myopitae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), a newly discovered parasitoid of olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Diptera: Tephritidae) in coastal California http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/21 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/21 Fri, 12 Mar 2010 15:36:55 PST An undescribed wasp, Pteromalus nr. myopitae (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) opportunistically parasitizes the olive fruit fly Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae), an introduced pest of olives in California. The native or typical host of P. nr. myopitae is unknown. We demonstrate that P. nr. myopitae is a solitary, ectoparasitic, idiobiont parasitoid of the third instar host inside fruit, and pupation occurs in the host tunnel. Reproduction of P. nr. myopitae on B. oleae in olives in the laboratory and in field cages generally failed. Host-feeding was not observed, and adults fed honey and water lived longer than those provided with water alone. Parasitism in non-commercial olives in the moderate coastal climate of San Luis Obispo occurred primarily from August to October, and was absent from a nearby location with more extreme climate and a low population of B. oleae. Greater parasitoid numbers were associated with greater host densities, and proportion of hosts parasitized was generally higher at lower host densities during 2 years of the study. The geographic range of the parasitoid extends along the coast from San Francisco Bay to Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico, and also inland in the Sacramento Valley, with one record in the San Joaquin Valley. The potential of the parasitoid as a biological control agent of B. oleae is probably low, however, the extent of its interference with other parasitoids being considered for release in California is unknown and warrants further study.

]]> Therese Kapaun et al. Articles Behavior of Female Eretmocerus sp. nr. Californicus Howard (Aphelinidae: Hymenoptera) Attacking Bemisa Argentifolii Bellows and Perring (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) on Two Native Californian Weeds http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/20 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/20 Thu, 08 Oct 2009 11:59:19 PDT Searching and ovipositional behaviors by female Eretmocems sp. nr. californicus Howard on Bemisia argentifolii Bellows and Perring infesting velvetleaf, Abutilon theophrasti Medic. (Malavaceae), and telegraph weed, Heterotheca grandiflora Nutt. (Asteraceae), were quantified. Adult female behaviors were described and quantified for E. sp. nr. californicus to establish a behavioral time budget analysis. Females departed from leaves of A. theophrasti in 83.3% of the trials, and of those that remained and searched for hosts, walking speeds averaged 0.29 mm/s. Females departed from the leaves of H. grandiflora in 44.4% of the trials, and those remaining readily searched for whitefly hosts with walking speeds averaging 0.26 mm/s. The duration of host assessment by antennation was related to subsequent behaviors; rejecting a host was a shorter process than accepting it for further evaluation irrespective of plant species or nymphal stage. Evidence for a behavioral preference for oviposition under early nymphal instars was documented for female E. sp. nr. californicus on both plant species. Oviposition efficiency in 1-h laboratory trials for nymphs on A. theophrasti was 30% and efficiency on H. grandiflora was 23%. Females spent 61.9 and 53.3% of their total time in searching, host assessment, probing, and oviposition while on A. theophrasti and H. grandiflora, respectively. The remainder of the time was spent grooming, resting, and host feeding, except host feeding on A. theophrasti was not observed. Implications of this study for silverleaf whitefly management through conservation and augmentation of native flora and fauna are discussed.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles The Biology of Nonfrugivorous Tephritid Fruit Flies http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/19 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/19 Wed, 07 Oct 2009 16:33:09 PDT This review is the first comprehensive treatment of the biology of nonfrugivorous fruit flies of the family Tephritidae. Feeding habits of destructive and useful species, morphology of immature stages, and hypotheses regarding structural homology and the evolutionary biology of nonfrugivorous tephritids are reviewed, including zoogeography and theories involving resource heterogeneity, guild structure, resource partitioning, resource utilization, facultative niche exploitation, extrinsic and intrinsic factors, host associations, seasonal distribution and phenology, aggregative and circumnatal life history strategies, voltinism, diapause, aestivation, oviposition site, clutch size, and supernumerary oviposition.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles Issues Concerning the Eradication or Establishment and Biological Control of the Mediterranean Fruit Fly,Ceratitis capitata(Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), in California http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/18 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/18 Wed, 07 Oct 2009 15:31:50 PDT Classical biological control is suggested as a tool worth developing now for possible future use in the integrated pest management of the Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), in California. Three factors that impact broadly on developing and implementing such a biological control program are: (1) the question of Medfly establishment, (2) quarantine considerations, and (3) agricultural and urban concerns. Each of these factors and their combined effects must be considered when discussing biological control of Medfly in California as shaped by historical perspectives on Medfly invasions, methods of Medfly eradication, and past biological control efforts against Medfly. We believe that biological control research should play a foundational role in any future Medfly management programs in California. Development of biological control should involve life history studies of Medfly and its natural enemies in their area of endemicity in sub-Saharan, southeast Africa. Medfly has been studied and should continue to be studied in areas it has invaded, because information derived from such studies provides insights into the potential distribution, abundance, and impact of Medfly populations in California. A plan for a biological research program on Medfly and its relatives and a biological control strategy are presented.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles Host-Plant Effects on the Behavior of Eretmocerus sp. nr. Californicus Females Raised from Melon http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/17 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/17 Wed, 07 Oct 2009 15:31:50 PDT The behaviors of female Eretmocerus sp. nr. californiens raised from Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring on melon, Cucumis melo L., were analysed on four different host plant species (cotton, melon, sweet potato and Abutilon theophrasti Medic). Comparison with previously published results of similarly treated females reared from sweet potato plants showed performance related differences leading to oviposition. In the present study, the generalized behavioral pathway (walking, host- encounter, antennation, probing and oviposition) did not vary among host plant species for melon- reared parasitoid females. Host assessment by antennation leading to host acceptance for probing varied from 10.5- 12.3 sec among the host plant species with no host stage- related differences in duration. Initial and repeated (multiple probes on the same host nymph) probing events varied from 52.4 to 77.3 sec among host plant species and no stage- related differences were detected. Oviposition occurred under 62 % of the nymphs on cotton, 100 % of the nymphs on melon and 51 % of the nymphs on sweet potato under which the ovipositor was exserted. On cotton, melon and sweet potato proportionally fewer first instar nymphs were encountered than present, a larger proportion of the second instars that were encountered were subsequently antennated, and a larger proportion of second instars on cotton were then subsequently probed. For cotton, melon, and sweet potato, the overall frequency of oviposition was lower than reported in previous studies. Results from these studies showed that the greatest factor in influencing overall parasitism in laboratory experiments was the propensity of females to alight and remain to search for hosts on a particular host plant. The role of “pre- conditioning” parasitoids to be better- suited to a particular host or host plant species is discussed relative to the findings herein.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles Behaviors of FemaleEretmocerussp. nr.californicus(Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) AttackingBemisia argentifolii(Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on Cotton,Gossypium hirsutum,(Malavaceae) and Melon,Cucumis melo(Cucurbitaceae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/16 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/16 Wed, 07 Oct 2009 15:31:48 PDT Behaviors of Eretmocerus sp. nr. californicus females attacking Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring infesting cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., and melon, Cucumis melo L., were quantified. Adult female behaviors were described and quantified for Eret. sp. nr. californicus to establish a behavioral time budget analysis. Females readily searched for host whitefly nymphs on cotton leaves with walking speeds averaging 0.5 mm/s. Females remained infrequently on melon leaves; those that did remain and search for hosts averaged walking speeds of 0.33 mm/s. The duration of host assessment by antennation was related to subsequent behaviors. Rejecting a host was a shorter process than accepting it for further evaluation irrespective of plant species or nymphal stage. Probing the margins of the host nymph the ovipositor was repeated less frequently on an individual host on melon leaves than on cotton. Evidence for a behavioral preference for oviposition under early instars was documented for Eret. sp. nr. californicus females on both plant species. Oviposition for the females that remained and searched for nymphs on leaves in 1-h-long laboratory trials on cotton measured 18%, while on melon, oviposition measured 55%; this higher percentage was attributed to oviposition sites being more accessible under nymphs on melon leaves. Superparasitism was not observed on either host plant species. Twenty-six percent of a female's time on cotton leaves was spent in searching, host assessment, probing, and oviposition, while on melon leaves these behaviors accounted for 44% of the total time. The remainder of the time was spent host feeding, grooming, and resting.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles Biological Control as a Tool for Ecosystem Management http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/15 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/15 Wed, 07 Oct 2009 15:31:47 PDT Biological control is proposed as a tool useful for ecosystem management and compatible with the goals of often competing interests regarding the restoration and maintenance of ecosystems. We summarize the effects of introduced species on ecosystems in three broad groups: insects, vertebrates, and weeds. We then discuss the role of biological control for each of these groups in the context of ecosystem management and realistic outcomes. Of the three groups, we show that biological control of weeds appears to have the best chance for success in ecosystem management. We provide two case studies to support our ideas and finally discuss future needs and trends including fiscal considerations, cost/benefits associated with biological weed control, and potential funding sources.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles Description of the Male Ceranisus Americensis (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/14 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/14 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 16:04:45 PDT Serguei V. Triapitsyn et al. Articles Development and Reproduction of a Population of Eretmocerus eremicus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) on Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/13 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/13 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 16:04:44 PDT Although the aphelinid parasitoid Eretmocerus eremicus Rose & Zolnerowich is the most abundant naturally occurring parasitoid of Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring in the U.S. desert southwest, its effectiveness in different cropping systems varies. Development and reproduction of a population of this parasitoid attacking B. argentifolii infesting cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., and sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas L., were quantified and compared. Females <24 h old contained an average of 20 ova that averaged 0.072 mm in length and 0.034 mm in width. Adult females lived an average of 5.9 d on cotton and 4.1 d on sweet potato and laid a lifetime average of 22.9 eggs on cotton and 23.1 eggs on sweet>potato; there were no significant differences of these parameters between host plant species. A preoviposition period of 0.61 d was recorded, and a maximum number of eggs laid in a day was 69 on cotton and 13 on sweet potato. The average preimaginal developmental periods for males and females on either host plant were not significantly different and averaged 22.58 d. The mean number of progeny produced on cotton was 25.4 with 51.5% of these female, whereas the mean number of progeny produced on sweet potato was 7.5 with 46.7% of these female. Life table parameters showed the net reproductive rate (Ro) was 11.64, the generation time (Tc) was 26.06 d, and the intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm) was 0.0959 for parasitoids on cotton, with a preimaginal survival assumed at unity. On sweet potato Ro was 3.75, Tc was 24.18 d, and rm was 0.055 with preimaginal survival calculated at 0.3247. These profound differences relate to, among other things, differences in female foraging and oviposition behavior on host plants with different morphological features.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles Fork-tailed Katydid Studies http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/11 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/11 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 16:04:43 PDT The fork-tailed katydid, Scudderia furcata Brunner (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) was considered a minor pest of citrus in California, but in the last few years has increasingly become a problem due to reduction in organophosphate and carbamate pesticides (Grafton-Cardwell 1999). Our objective is to study the biology and behavior of the fork-tailed katydid as a pest of commercially grown citrus in order to develop ecologically-based control methods for application in commercial citrus production.

]]> David H. Headrick Articles Reproductive Biology and Search Behavior of Amitus bennetti (Hymenoptera: Platygasteridae), a Parasitoid of Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/12 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/12 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 16:04:43 PDT Andrea L. Joyce et al. Articles Novel Lepidopteran Sex Pheromone Components From Marmara gulosa (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/10 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/10 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 16:04:42 PDT Marmara gulosa Guillén & Davis (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) is a sporadic pest of citrus and a number of other crops in southern and central California. Coupled gas chromatographic-electroantennogram detection analyses of headspace volatiles collected by solid phase microextraction from virgin female moths revealed at least four related compounds in the extracts that elicited significant antennal responses from antennae of male moths. These compounds were identified as (8E,10E)-tetradecadien-1-ol, and the corresponding aldehyde, acetate, and formate ester, representing the first report of a formate as a lepidopteran pheromone component. The four compounds were consistently found in headspace volatiles collected from virgin female moths from different regions of the state and from M. gulosa collected from different host plants (citrus and squash). Repeated field trials determined that the formate ester alone was as attractive or more attractive than any blend of the formate with one or more of the remaining compounds. Although large numbers of moths were caught in some field trials, trap catches were not consistent. Thus, the pheromone may be useful for detection of the moth and setting an initial biofix, but it remains unclear whether the pheromone can be used as a reliable and accurate tool for monitoring densities of M. gulosa populations.

]]> J. Stephen McElfresh et al. Articles Descriptions of Immature Stages of Trupanea nigricornis and T. bisetosa (Diptera: Tephritidae) from Southern California http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/9 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/9 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 12:19:53 PDT The immature stages of the sympatric, cryptic species Trupanea nigricornis (Coquillett), a flower head-infesting fruit fly that attacks a wide range of hosts in the Asteraceae in southern California, and T. bisetosa (Coquillett), an oligophagous congener that attacks only a few hosts in the tribe Heliantheae, are described and illustrated. Detailed examination with the aid of scanning electron microscopy of the eggs, all 3 instars, and puparia of this taxonomically closely allied generalist and specialist revealed many similarities and very few differences, for instance, most puparia of T. nigricornis were shorter and narrower than those of T. bisetosa. Therefore, major differences in the host-plant specificities of these cryptic, possibly sibling, species were not reflected by substantial morphological differences among their immature stages.

]]> Khouzama M. Knio et al. Articles Behaviors of Female Eretmocerus sp. nr. californicus (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) Attacking Bemisia argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) on Sweet Potato http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/7 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/7 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 12:19:53 PDT Behaviors of Eretmocerus sp. nr. californicus Howard females on Bemisia argentifolii Bellows & Perring infesting sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lain, were described and quantified. Walking speeds of up to 1.3 mm/s were calculated for females searching for host whitefly nymphs on sweet potato leaves. Females encountered all host stages during searching with approximately the same relative frequency as their relative abundance (average of 17.03% of hosts available were encountered). Females also arrested and antennated all of the host stages with the same relative frequency as their encounter rate (62.8%). Females showed a clear and significant preference for probing second instars over all other stages. Of the hosts probed, females chose all stages for oviposition with the same relative frequency. Successful exsertion of the ovipositor under a host nymph occurred after initial probes 12 times and after repeated probing attempts 15 times. Oviposition occurred under 13.5% of the hosts assessed by antennation; however, 20 of the 27 (74%) nymphs under which the ovipositor was exserted received an egg. Females spent 41% of the total time in searching, host assessment, probing, and oviposition: the remainder of the time (59%) was spent host feeding, grooming, and resting.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles Life History and Description of Immature Stages of Euaresta stigmatica (Diptera: Tephritidae) on Ambrosia spp. (Asteraceae) in Southern California http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/8 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/8 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 12:19:53 PDT Euaresta stigmatica Coquillett is bivoltine and nearly monophagous on four native ragweeds, Ambrosia spp. (Asteraceae), in the southwestern United States. In southern California, larvae of the spring (F1) generation develop singly in and feed on one or both ovules of young fruiting involucres of Ambrosia ilicifolia (Gray) Payne, with a small proportion infesting the staminate involucres. Adults emerge after ≈1 mo, with their reproductive organs immature. The F2 generation develops in the involucres of fall-blooming Ambrosia acanthicarpa Hooker. The egg is described and illustrated for the first time for any species of Euaresta. First, second, and third instars and the puparium are described and illustrated for the first time for E. stigmatica. The posterior spiracular plates of all three instars bear only three interspiracular processes, whereas the larvae and puparia of all other nonfrugivorous tephritids described to date bear four such processes. Adult behaviors described from field and laboratory studies include courtship, copulation, and territoriality. Male courtship displays include three behaviors previously undescribed for Tephritidae: a side-to-side dance, rapid side stepping,and a middle leg abduction. Hymenopterous parasitoids of E. stigmatica include two solitary, primary larval-pupal, endoparasitoids, Eurytoma sp. (Eurytomidae) and Pteromalus sp. (Pteromalidae). Potential use of E. stigmatica as a biological control agent for ragweeds in Eurasiais discussed.

]]> David H. Headrick et al. Articles Comparative Biologies of the Cryptic, Sympatric Species, Trupanea bisetosa and T. nigricornis (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Southern California http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/6 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/6 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 12:19:52 PDT The biologies of the sympatric, cryptic species, Trupanea nigricornis (Coquillett), a flower head-infesting fruit fly attacking a wide range of hosts in 8 tribes, 33 genera, and at least 71 species of Asteraceae, and T. bisetosa (Coquillett), an oligophage attacking only 6 hosts in 4 genera of the tribe Heliantheae, are described and compared. A major biological distinction between these species was their ovipositional behavior, whereby females oviposited different numbers of eggs at different sites in different developmental stages of flower heads of their hosts. The larvae of these species showed minor differences in their feeding behaviors, and their puparia were formed and located similarly in host flower heads. Development from egg to adult under field conditions lasted up to 35 d for each species. These species showed subtle differences in their courtship and mating behaviors, and substantial differences in the daily timing of courtship.

]]> Khouzama M. Knio et al. Articles Life History and Descriptions of Immature Stages of Tephritis Baccharis (Coquillett) on Baccharis Salicifolia (Ruiz & Pavon) Persoon in Southern California (Diptera: Tephritidae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/5 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/5 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 12:19:51 PDT Tephritis baccharis (Coquillett) is bivoltine and monophagous on Baccharis salicifolia(Ruiz & Pavon) Persoon in southern California. The egg, the second and third instar larvae, and puparium are described and illustrated. Eggs are inserted singly into terminal buds of main and axillary branches in late winter or early spring. First instar larvae hatch and tunnel into the pith just basad to the apical bud where they initiate gall formation. Gall and larval growth continue slowly into the fall, when pupation occurs. Most F1 flies emerge, mate, and after about one week begin oviposition. Some F1 flies that emerge in the fall may overwinter as adults; however, a few F1 individuals may not emerge and instead overwinter as pupae in puparia in mature galls. Second and third instar, F2 larvae also overwinter in developing galls. Flies were long-lived under laboratory conditions; males and females lived an average of 140 days and 83 days, respectively. This longevity and the long fecundity period of females allow T. baccharis to attack the new buds and branch growth produced by B. salicifolia, because this phraetophyte is capable of protracted, nearly year-round vegetative growth and flowering in southern California.

Principle natural enemies of T. baccharis include three, solitary, primary, parasitoids, Pnigalo sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), Halticoptera sp. and Pteromalus sp. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), and unidentified birds as important predators on overwintering larvae in galls.

]]> Richard D. Goeden et al. Articles Life History and Description of Immature Stages of Procecidochares Stonei Blanc & Foote on Viguiera Spp. in Southern California (Diptera: Tephritidae) http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/4 http://works.bepress.com/dheadric/4 Tue, 06 Oct 2009 10:34:57 PDT Procecidochares stonei Blanc & Foote is a facultatively multivoltine, stenophagous, gall-forming fruit fly on Viguiera laciniata Gray and V. deltoidea Gray var. parishii (Greene) Vasey and Rose (Asteraceae) in southern California. The latter host record is new; other published host records are questioned. Eggs, first through third instar larvae, and puparia are described for the first time. Galls formed on both host plants are described. The severe drought in southern California during the last 5 years has reduced the densities of P. stonei on V. d. var. parishii. Fly reproduction was restricted to one generation per year on the few host plant individuals that thrived in favored sites where they received supplemental water (i.e., along drip lines of boulders and margins of paved roads). Adult behaviors described include grooming, feeding, wing displays, courtship, copulation and oviposition. Females typically lay eggs in clusters of two or more in axillary buds. Larvae develop gregariously, mainly as two, but up to 13 per gall. Four species of hymenopterous parasitoids are reported, the most common of which was Eurytoma sp. (Eurytomidae).

]]> John F. Green et al. Articles