Charles R. Honts

Interrogations, False Confessions and the Polygraph: Issues and Concerns from Psychological Science (Invited Address)

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:14:38 PST

Polygrapher's Dilemma or Psychologist's Chimaera: A Reply to Furedy's Logico-ethical Considerations for Psychophysiological Practitioners and Researchers

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:08:44 PST

We respond to Furedy's article in this journal where he raised an issue he referred to as the “Polygrapher's dilemma” (Furedy J.J. (1993) Int. J. Psychophysiol., 15: 263–267). Furedy claimed that the control question test, the most commonly applied psychophysiological detection of deception test, is inherently subjective and harmful to subjects in both the field and the laboratory. Fortunately, Furedy's arguments were based on inaccurate representations of the control question test and on flawed logic. To correct Furedy's misrepresentations, we present an accurate description of how the control question test is used and evaluated. We then examine the results of empirical research that address Furedy's concerns. Furedy's concerns are found to be lacking on almost all counts. Finally, we discuss the findings from several studies that Furedy failed to mention but are directly relevant to the issues he raised.

Effects of Spontaneous Countermeasures Used Against the Comparison Question Test

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:08:38 PST

Polygraph tests are widely applied in assessing the truthfulness of criminal suspects, witnesses, and job applicants. The results of polygraph tests are sometimes used as evidence in courts of law. Errors of classification by a polygraph test can have serious consequences. Countermeasures are anything that a subject does in a deliberate effort to defeat, distort or alter a polygraph test. This study examines the effects of spontaneous countermeasures against the comparison question test (CQT) in an effort to replicate the earlier work by Honts and his colleagues, and to examine the frequency and effects of the use of spontaneous countermeasures by innocent subjects of CQT polygraph examinations. The CQT assesses credibility by asking direct accusatory questions known as relevant questions (e.g. Did you take the money from the safe?). The CQT also asks other questions known as comparison questions. Comparison questions are designed to evoke physiological responses from innocent subjects. Comparison questions take the form of either probable lies or known lies. The rationale is that CQT predicts that guilty subjects will produce larger physiological responses to the relevant questions. Innocent subjects are expected to produce larger physiological responses to comparison questions than to the relevant questions. The data for this study were collected from subjects who participated in a larger study that was collected for other purposes. The results show that the use of spontaneous countermeasures by deceptive participants does not affect polygraph examination outcomes. The study also examined the ability of highly trained polygraph examiners to detect the use of countermeasures. The results show that they cannot detect the use of spontaneous countermeasures. These results support the continued use of polygraph tests in applied settings.

Information Does Not Affect the Validity of a Comparison Question Test

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:08:32 PST

Purpose. Detailed information about the comparison question test (CQT) and possible countermeasures are now available on the Internet. This study examined whether the provision of such information would affect the validity of the Test for Espionage and Sabotage, a directed lie variant of the CQT.

Method. Forty participants were divided into four equal groups: guilty, guilty informed, innocent, and innocent informed. During a first appointment, participants either did or did not commit a mock crime: then some were provided with a book containing detailed information on the CQT, including possible countermeasures. After 1 week with the book, all participants were administered a CQT during their second appointment. Following the polygraph, participants responded to a questionnaire that asked them about their behaviour and perceptions during their examination.

Results. There were no significant effects of providing information on the validity of the CQT. However, the reported use of countermeasures was associated with a lower probability of truthfulness. Results of the debriefing questionnaire were found to support predictions made by the theory of the CQT.

Conclusions. Concerns that readily available information will enable guilty individuals to produce false-negative errors seem unfounded. Moreover, the results actually indicate that the use of countermeasures was associated with a lower probability of truthfulness, which was exactly the opposite outcome predicted by the CQT critics.

The Scientific Status of Research on Polygraph Techniques: The Case for Polygraph Tests

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:08:26 PST

The Utah Numerical Scoring System

Brian G. Bell et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:08:22 PST

The Utah method for numerically evaluating polygraph charts is a highly reliable and valid method for scoring specific-incident, comparison-question tests. For respiration, electrodermal activity (skin conductance or skin resistance), relative blood pressure (cardiograph), and peripheral vasomotor activity (finger plethysmograph), a score from +3 to -3 is assigned for each presentation of a relevant question. The reaction to the relevant question is compared to the reaction to a nearby comparison (control) question. A positive score is assigned when the psychophysiological reaction is greater to the comparison question than to the relevant question, a negative score is assigned when the reaction is greater to the relevant question, and a zero is assigned when the responses to the relevant and comparison questions are approximately equal. Scores are based on the criteria described in the present report. Common artifacts that may affect numerical evaluations are discussed, as are limitations of this scoring system.

Spontaneous Countermeasures During Polygraph Examinations: An Apparent Exercise in Futility

Kimberly D. Otter-Henderson et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:08:16 PST

Countermeasures are deliberate actions of a subject designed to defeat or distort a polygraph test. Countermeasures can be implemented in two ways: through preplanning with or without training or spontaneously without forethought or training. The frequency of spontaneous countermeasure use and their effects were examined in this study. Participants were instructed to complete the first job application truthfully. The information they furnished was then compared with the documentation they had provided. Participants in the "innocent" condition were instructed to complete a second application truthfully and to place all of the contents of the envelop back into it except the second application. Participants in the deceptive conditions were instructed to select one from each of two groups and develop deceptive information about the chosen items and to put that deceptive information on the second application. If participants indicated they had used some type of countermeasure, they were asked what method they used and where they had learned about the use of such countermeasures. Responses were placed into one of four categories: alterations in breathing, mental countermeasures, physical countermeasures, and combinations. Overall, 53.8 percent of the participants reported using at least one spontaneous countermeasure. The study findings agree with previous similar studies that the use of spontaneous countermeasures by deceptive participants does not affect polygraph examination outcomes; however, this study, unlike Honts et al., (1988), found that a substantial number of truthful subjects (30 percent) also attempted to "appear more innocent" through the use of spontaneous countermeasures.

Psychophysiological Credibility Assessment

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:08:10 PST

Psychophysiological Credibility Assessment (PCA), commonly known as polygraph testing, is one of the most misunderstood, misrepresented and maligned applications of psychology. In this article we review the two main approaches to PCA, knowledge-based and deception-based tests, and the techniques, scientific support and criticisms associated with each. Despite data indicating that the most commonly used polygraph techniques are highly valid discriminators of deceivers and truth tellers, there are several very vocal and high profile critics of psychophysiological credibility assessment. Unfortunately, since most psychologists appear to be poorly informed about the controversy, they may be misled by misinformation from persons believed to be high authority sources. We hope that the present article will help to inform the forensic community about this important and interesting area.

The Hybrid Directed Lie Test, the Overemphasized Comparison Question, Chimeras and Other Inventions: A Rejoinder to Abrams

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:08:04 PST

Research Methods for Psychophysiological Deception Detection

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:58 PST

For purposes of this chapter, we accept Vrij's (2000) definition of deception as "a successful or unsuccessful deliberate attempt, without forewarning, to create in another a belief which the communicator considers to be untrue" (p.6). Deception is a ubiquitous human behavior. DePaulo and her colleagues (DePaulo & Kashy, 1998; DePaulo, Kashy, Kirkendol, Wyer, & Epstein, 1996; Kashy & Depaulo, 1996) studied deception in naturalistic settings and found that during interpersonal interactions of 10 minutes or longer, people lied on average twice a day. Deception is used in quarter of interactions with others, and on average, a person lies to 34% of the people interacted with during an average week. Robinson, Shepherd, and Heywood (1998) reported that 83% of the university undergraduates surveyed said they would like to get a job.

Effects of Outside Issues on the Comparison Question Test

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:54 PST

In the present study, the authors examined the effects of outside issues on the validity of the Comparison Question Test in a laboratory mock-crime paradigm. In a 2 × 2 X 2 factorial design, 192 participants either did or did not commit (a) a mock theft of a dollar (about which they were tested), or (b) a mock theft of $20 (the outside issue); and they either were or were not asked questions about an outside issue. The presence of the outside issue had a strong differential impact on the participants who were innocent of the tested issue, and it dramatically moved their scores toward deception. The impact of an outside issue on the guilty was minimal. Test questions about possible outside issues were ineffective in detecting the presence of the outside issue, but they did function as comparison questions. The results have implications for understanding the high rate of false positive outcomes in some studies.

Barron's Revised Ego-strength Scale as a Measure of Test Taking Style: Relationships with the Validity Scales of the MMPI-2

Steven Thurber et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:49 PST

Relationships between the Barron revised Ego-Strength (Es) Scale and selected validity scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Invertory-2 (MMPI-2) were examined in terms of zero-order correlations, multiple partial correlations, factor analysis, and discriminant analysis. The participants were 259 individuals from a state correctional system. The fundamental aim was to ascertain whether or not low scores on the Es represent a hypothesized test taking style related to faking bad. The data yielded support for this notion and also suggested that higher Es scores may relate to social desirability or fake good responding.

The Role of Comparison Questions in Physiological Detection of Deception

Steven W. Horowitz et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:43 PST

Comparison questions in physiological detection of deception were studied with 60 “guilty’ and 60 “innocent’ participants in a mock crime experiment. Different types of comparison questions were used in four conditions: relevant–irrelevant (R-I) participants answered only relevant and neutral questions; trivial directed lie participants were instructed to lie to three of the six neutral questions; personal directed lie participants were instructed to lie to personally relevant questions; and probable lie participants received traditional probable lie comparison questions. Respiration, cardiovascular, vasomotor, and electrodermal activity were recorded. Manipulation of the comparison questions produced different patterns of physiological responses for innocent but not for guilty participants. The R-I test produced an unacceptable rate of false positive decisions.

Criterion Development and Validity of the CQT in Field Application

Charles R. Honts — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:37 PST

Examines the validity of control question tests (CQT) or polygraph tests conducted in the field. Assessment of a person's credibility by looking for a differential reaction between two types of questions; Comparison of decision accuracy of examiners and independent evaluators; Criterion development in field studies of detection of deception; Process of rating the strength of confirmation.

Truth or Just Bias: The Treatment of the Psychophysiological Detection of Deception in Introductory Psychology Textbooks

Mary K. Devitt et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:32 PST

This study examined the presentation of psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD; polygraph) testing in introductory psychology textbooks. We examined a sample of 37 introductory psychology textbooks published between 1987 and 1994 for content that discussed PDD testing. Excerpts concerning PDD were then checked for misdescriptions or inaccuracies and rated by two psychophysiologists and a social psychologist. The results showed that PDD received strongly negative treatment in the texts. Moreover, the treatments were often fraught with misdescriptions and inaccuracies. In addition, there was an over-reliance on reviews as opposed to empirical studies. We discuss the significance of the problems of bias, reliance on secondary sources, and inaccuracies, and elaborated on the importance of balanced and error free presentations in this medium that serves as a first introduction to the science of psychology for so many people.

Automation of a Screening Polygraph Test Increases Accuracy

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:28 PST

The present study examined the effects of automating the Relevant–Irrelevant (RI) psychophysiological detection of deception test within a mock-screening paradigm. Eighty participants, recruited from the local community, took part in the study. Experimental design was a 2 (truthful/deceptive) by 2 (human/automation) factorial. Participants in the deceptive conditions attempted deception on two items of an employment application. Examinations conducted with the automated polygraph examination were significantly more accurate than examinations conducted by the human polygraph examiner. Statistical analyses revealed different patterns of physiological responses to deceptive items depending upon the automation condition. Those results have potentially interesting theoretical implications. The results of the present study are clearly supportive of additional efforts to develop a field application of an automated polygraph examination.

Truth or Bias: Psychology and the Polygraph

Charles R. Honts — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:22 PST

The Discussion of Comparison Questions Between List Repetitions (Charts) is Associated with Increased Test Accuracy

Charles R. Honts — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:18 PST

The effects of reviewing questions between question list repetitions (charts) during a comparison question test were examined in the relevant scientific literature. Although the practice of reviewing questions between repetitions has a long history in the polygraph profession, controversy has recently been raised by Abrams who has testified against the admission of tests where questions were reviewed between repetitions. Eleven studies were found where questions were reviewed and eight studies were found where questions were not reviewed between repetitions. Analyses of the results of those studies clearly show Abrams to be wrong. Errors were significantly reduced in studies where questions were reviewed as compared to those where they were not reviewed. The largest effect occurred with guilty subject where the error rate was reduced by 54% in studies where questions were reviewed. The present results clearly support the review of questions between repetitions.

The Willingness of Children to Lie and the Assessment of Credibility in an Ecologically Relevant Laboratory Setting

Marcus Choi Tye et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:12 PST

A series of 4 experiments were conducted to (a) determine the willingness of children to lie in a realistic setting, (b) compare judgments of credibility from both lay evaluations and Criterion-Based Content Analysis (CBCA), and (c) examine the effects of expert testimony regarding Statement Validity Assessment on mock jurors who were asked to make evaluations of the children's statements. In Experiment 1, 81% of children who witnessed a research assistant steal a textbook made accusations against the thief (truthful), 69% of children who did not witness the theft accused the research assistant of the theft following prompting by significant others, and 56% of the children who witnessed a significant other steal the textbook incorrectly accused the research assistant following a request from their significant other. Using the statements obtained from the children in Experiment 1, Experiments 2 and 3 found that classification accuracy of lay evaluators was significantly poorer than expert application of CBCA, which resulted in 89% classification accuracy. Finally, brief exposure to CBCA expert testimony appeared to have no benefits on mock jurors' assessments of credibility of the children's statements in Experiment 4. Implications for North American legal systems are discussed.

You Can Run, but You Can’t Hide: A Critical Look at the Fight or Flight Response in Psychophysiological Detection of Deception

M. Handler et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:06 PST

An EDA Primer for Polygraph Examiners

Mark Handler et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:07:01 PST

Integration of Pre-Employment Polygraph Screening into the Police Selection Process

Mark Handler et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:06:56 PST

The authors provide a polygraph primer for police psychologists involved in law enforcement personnel selection. Law-enforcement pre-employment polygraph examinations are a decision-support tool intended to add incremental validity to the personnel selection process. Problems stemming from the use of the polygraph may be related to misunderstanding of the polygraph test and to field practices surrounding the use of polygraphy in the police selection process. Potential problems can result from ineffective selection of test issues, poorly constructed test questions and misguided policies surrounding the use of the polygraph. The authors review the history of polygraph screening, research, and field practices, and suggest that using polygraph results alone to disqualify a candidate from employment is a misguided field practice. Suggestions are offered for maximizing the decision-support value of the polygraph. Polygraph examination targets are discussed, with emphasis on selecting actuarially derived predictors associated with increased success in law enforcement training and job performance. The authors provide recommendations for field practice, and propose that police psychologists may be most suited to effectively integrate the polygraph results and information into the hiring recommendation process.

Mental and Physical Countermeasures Reduce the Accuracy of the Concealed Knowledge Test

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:06:50 PST

The effects of a physical (pressing the toes to the floor) and a mental (counting backward by sevens) countermeasure on the concealed knowledge test (CKT) were examined in a mock crime experiment with 40 subjects. Some knowledgeable subjects were informed about the nature of the CKT and were trained in the use of a countermeasure, whereas others remained uninformed. All subjects were offered a monetary reward if they could produce a truthful outcome. Subjects were tested using standard field techniques and instrumentation. The physical and, to a lesser extent, the mental countermeasures reduced the accuracy of the CKT. These results clearly demonstrate that the CKT has no special immunity to the effects of countermeasures.

The Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale: Convergent Validity and Diagnostic Discrimination

Steven Thurber et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:06:46 PST

This study examined the concurrent validity of the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) in relation to the Depression (D) scale of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2 (MMPI-2) and addressed a gap in the literature with respect to diagnostic discrimination. The participants were persons on probation or parole. Although women were more depressed than men on the SDS, gender did not interact with SDS as a predictor in a logistic regression analysis. The SDS was found to be the primary discriminating variable in distinguishing depressed from nondepressed participants. In addition, the SDS contributed significant incremental validity over the D scale and showed greater accuracy in identifying nondepressed individuals.

Scientific Status: The Case for Polygraph Tests

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:06:40 PST

The Polygraph in 1995: Progress in Science and the Law

Charles R. Honts et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:06:36 PST

Horizontal Gaze Nystagmus Test: The State of the Science in 1995

Susan L. Amato-Henderson et al. — Thu, 01 Dec 2011 13:06:31 PST